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Athletes in general are at a higher risk for vitamin D deficiency, especially athletes participating in indoor sports 121,129,130,131. The vitamin D receptor, which plays a central role in the biological action of the vitamin, has been observed in reproductive tissues such as the ovaries, prostate, and testes, as well as in human sperm 122,123,124,125. The second hydroxylation step is performed primarily in the kidney to form 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3, also referred to as 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol, which is the biologically active form of vitamin D 117,118. The first hydroxylation step occurs in the liver where vitamin D is converted to 25-hydroxyvitamin D 25(OH)D. In brief, vitamin D, whether it is synthesized endogenously or consumed as a food or supplement, undergoes hydroxylation to become active. Vitamin D has two biological forms, vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol), and vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol). In addition, muscle androgen-responsive mRNA was increased in all groups as a result of the training stimulus (significant main effects for time), but no significant differences were observed between the three groups.
Manipulation of testosterone concentrations without the use of anabolic steroids has been a highly investigated topic because of the known effect testosterone has on enhancing athletic performance 2,6. In the blood, most testosterone is transported bound to several proteins, mainly serum albumin and sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG). As for its androgenic effects, testosterone mediates the development of male primary and secondary male characteristics such as sexual organ growth, deepening of the voice, and growth of facial and body hair . Thus, the focus of this review is to examine the effect that manipulating energy and nutrient intake has on circulating concentrations of testosterone and what the potential mechanism is governing these changes.
Some studies also included dietary advice to increase sources of calcium, which may have affected the results of the intervention. The baseline nutritional status of participants was not taken into account in a number of studies despite baseline status or deficiency being likely to determine the response to interventions. Since the age-related decline in sex-hormones and IGF-1 not only increases the risk of sarcopenia, but also a number of conditions of aging, including falls, osteoporosis, fractures, cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality, this is unfortunate 5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16. The same two trials (Kranse, 2005; and Hoenjet, 2005) also assessed the effect of multi-nutrient supplementation on Dihydroteststerone and SHBG (Figure 6), but again Kranse provided no measure of variance and two different effect sizes, so could not be pooled. The Jensen et al. study analysed data using a ‘per-protocol’ method which introduced potential bias , since the 20% of study participants withdrew. Meta-analysis of two RCTs suggested a small though non-statistically significant increase in SHBG with vitamin D (MD 4.18 nmol/L, 95% CI −1.28 to 9.64, I2 0%, Figure 5), but data from the third trial contradicted this finding.
Some of them include; fatty fish, green, and yellow vegetables, nuts and seeds, red meat and fermented foods. Vitamin K2 is involved in bone metabolism and heart health. Vitamin B6 plays an important role in the synthesis of androgens as well as testosterone.
There have been other naturally occurring nutrients that have been suggested to have a potential anabolic effect by increasing testosterone concentrations. Consuming foods or dietary supplements containing nutrients with aromatase inhibitors may provide an ergogenic effect by inhibiting the conversion of testosterone to estradiol, indirectly increasing testosterone concentrations. However, others reported no change in testosterone concentrations in men consuming honey and propolis for 21 days . The health benefits of red wine have been well-examined, and in recent decades studies have reported that red wine consumption has antioxidant, lipid regulating, and anti-inflammatory effects . Future RCTs should be of sufficient size and include baseline and follow-up measures of dietary intake (such as with food frequency questionnaires), as well as using blood concentrations of the relevant micronutrients.
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