Checking testosterone levels is as easy as having a blood test. However, many men with normal testosterone levels have similar symptoms, so a direct connection between testosterone levels and symptoms is not always clear. That's why medications that lower testosterone levels (for example, leuprolide) are common treatments for men with prostate cancer. In fact, as men age, testosterone levels drop very gradually, about 1% to 2% each year — unlike the relatively rapid drop in estrogen that causes menopause. Women with high testosterone levels, due to either disease or drug use, may experience a decrease in breast size and deepening of the voice, in addition to many of the problems men may have. The researchers found the content was closely linked to the online manosphere, a cluster of online communities that promote narrow, hyper-masculine ideals and frame men’s health, identity and success through dominance, physical strength and sexual performance. Finally, 15 min after the performance, participants provided a second saliva sample and completed the PANAS and gender self-ratings again. Although salivary assays may underestimate the actual strength of testosterone–behavior links in women (45), our within-subjects design addresses this problem (6). However, because men are encouraged to engage in more competitions and to wield power more frequently, this might paradoxically lead to dampened testosterone responses in men to individual competitions, as has been shown in other species (15). Our study used a more social interactive engagement, with the opportunity for rich social communication consistently marking power rather than merely outcome. Testosterone was measured via different assays for women (EIA) and men (RIA) because of assay constraints, so we confirmed that analyses incorporating both in one repeated measures analysis showed the same pattern of results as analyses conducted separately. Participants were instructed that their motivations should involve desire to show annoyance to employee, confidence in decision to fire employee, comfort with position of power, superiority, and wanting to be respected. These were derived from the broad literature on gender-stereotypical and normative communication styles (e.g., refs. 46 and 47). They then completed a final PANAS and second set of gender self-ratings while providing the second sample. Participants provided informed consent and completed the health and demographics and acting experiences questionnaires. Men taking testosterone replacement must be carefully monitored for prostate cancer. There are times when low testosterone is not such a bad thing. Affected women may experience low libido, reduced bone strength, poor concentration or depression. At their baseline laboratory session, participants responded to 10 items about their typical acting style (emotional vs. cognitive) and indicated their number of years of experience with acting. Recruitment materials specified that participants must be at least 18 y old and be experienced actors. Cortisol is a confound of particular relevance given its potential links to both testosterone and status (32). This suggests that, when gender norms constrain behaviors that affect testosterone, gender norms can mediate effects of gender on testosterone, for example by encouraging wielding power for men and discouraging it for women (24). Our results would support a pathway from gender to testosterone that is mediated by men engaging more frequently than women in behaviors such as wielding power that increase testosterone. Thus, controlling for potential confounds including cortisol, and regardless of gender stereotypicality in performance, wielding power significantly increased testosterone in women. Wielding power in a feminine and especially in a masculine way thus increased testosterone in women, but this analysis did not reflect the contributions of potential confounds or (performance) stress, both of which may be relevant (6). If men, more than women, are socialized to engage in competitive behaviors such as wielding power that increase testosterone, then this may partially explain why men have higher testosterone than women.
